Confidence intervals that include 95% of the effects were computed for each effect size. Whereas there is empirical evidence that gender differences in masculine versus feminine self-descriptions peak in middle adulthood and decline thereafter (Palmore 1997; Puglisi and Jackson 1980), it is less clear whether gender differences in SWB and global dimensions of self-description change with increasing age. Thus, it is difficult to predict the nature of gender differences in SWB in future cohorts. In addition, Kling and associates 1999 suggested that role changes brought by the women's movement may have improved women's self-esteem. No moderator effects of age emerged for life satisfaction and subjective age. Thus, our data mostly support Hypothesis 2.1 with regard to loneliness, whereas no support for this hypothesis was found with regard to subjective health and life satisfaction. Subscription will auto renew annually. Life satisfaction was most often measured with the Life-Satisfaction Index (Neugarten, Havighurst, and Tobin 1961; 48 studies), single items that assessed overall life satisfaction (30 studies), and the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale (Lawton 1975; 13 studies). On the basis of the fact that most analyses showed heterogeneous effect sizes, we used random-effect models to analyze the effects of moderator variables because fixed-effect models may underestimate the 95% intervals (Raudenbush 1994). With regard to the six aspects of SWB and self-concept we investigated, the largest gender difference in favor of men was found for not feeling lonely. We infer from this that older women's intimacy needs may be more difficult to fulfill than men's needs. Blog. The reader should be aware that there was considerable variation in the number of studies that reported correlations between the variables. 67–87). In the present meta-analysis, we were able to test three of these reasons. On the basis of these considerations, Hypothesis 1.1 states that across all included studies older women will report lower life satisfaction, less happiness, and lower self-esteem compared with men. However, multiple regression analysis was used to test the influence of participants' age and cohort membership simultaneously. Furthermore, because there is not much research on gender differences in sources of SWB and self-concept we would encourage more research in this field. Calculations for the meta-analyses were performed in five steps, mainly using procedures outlined by Hedges and Olkin 1985. Two meta-analyses by Haring, Stock, and Okun 1984 and Kling, Hyde, Showers, and Buswell 1999, however, reported a slightly higher SWB and higher self-esteem in men than women (r = .04 and d = .21, respectively). Global self-esteem: Its relation to specific facets of self-concept and their importance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 1224–1236. Gender differences in physical health and competence were suggested as a second explanation for lower SWB in older women than men. Sex Roles 30, 615–630 (1994). In this article, we focus on three measures, loneliness, self-evaluations of one's health (subjective health), and subjective age. Gender differences were not found in external locus of control, in academic self-concept, and in study aids and test strategies. ),Gender and thought (pp. brands to how they perceive themselves (i.e., actual self-concept) rather than to how they perceive what they should be like (i.e., ideal self-concept). Gender differences in the accuracy of self-evaluations of performance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 960–970. Stewart, A. J., & Lykes, M. B. On the basis of 10% of the studies, two coders for quality of the study achieved an average interrater agreement of 94%. As shown in the homogeneity tests, all seven statistical effects were heterogeneous. The third question, which has not been resolved in the literature to date, is whether gender differences in SWB and self-concept vary with the age of participants and whether they are influenced by cohort differences. Alexander, D., & Andersen, K. (1993). In our second research question, we investigated influences on the size of gender differences in SWB and self-concept. *. With one exception, all gender differences were significant in both representative and nonrepresentative samples: As shown in Table 3 , we found no gender differences in happiness in nonrepresentative samples. Gender as a factor in the attribution of leadership traits. Jackson, L.A., Hodge, C.N. Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to early adulthood.Journal of Educational Psychology, 81 417–430. Monge, R. H. (1973). The chart below describes what happens to self-confidence as people get older. Self-concept: Its multifaceted hierarchical structure.Educational Psychologist, 20 107–123. Gender differences are expected not only in general dimensions of self-evaluation but also in domain-specific dimensions. Thus, lower aspirations in older women compared with men may reduce gender differences in SWB. Self-Concept Research suggests that female problem eaters have low physical and personal self-esteem which includes a negative perception of their appearance, physical and personal competence, sexuality, and self-worth (Nelson & Hughes, 1999). As discussed above, the higher SWB of older men may, in part, result from the fact that a higher percentage of men are married, which provides them access to an important source of support as well as personal validation. However, more research is needed on cohort differences in aspirations. In Part 2, we’ll consider where these ideas come from as well as how they influence the way we see ourselves – our self-concept – and how gender ideas, embedded in our minds, can interfere with our ability to make choices from our hearts. For example, Hansson, Jones, Carpenter, and Remondet 1986 showed that social comparisons with widowed friends are associated with less loneliness for elderly widows. They propose two main mechanisms by which gender … Skaalvik, E. M., & Rankin, R. J. The role of gender in the lives of young children has garnered attention, as early gender-related concepts, self-perceptions, preferences, and behaviour have the potential to affect choices, aspirations, social networks and many other future life domains. First, research on the protection of a positive self-concept in older adults has shown a considerable resilience of the aging self (Brandtstadter, Wentura, and Greve 1993). (1998, November). (1999, November). ),Sex role identity and ego development (pp. Gender and employment status as content for understanding financial satisfaction during the early retirement years. (1978). Unfortunately, computing multiple regression analyses with simultaneous inclusion of all predictors was not possible because there was almost no single study that gave sufficient information regarding all predictor variables. The studies were published between 1948 and the fall of 1999. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544666, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Thus, although significant gender differences can be shown, they seem to be of limited empirical importance. (1992).Physical appearance and gender: Sociobiological and sociocultural perspectives. A second reason why men and women may not differ in SWB and self-concept is that they may have different sources of SWB and self-concept. 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And success have been stated as to why older women compared with.!, first, whether older men loneliness were significantly larger in samples with homogeneous socioeconomic background differences and stereotypicality... Argument suggests that men 's and women are not that simple English-language journals ; an additional of! We propose, therefore, that meta-analyses of older adults are encouraged to of! Skaalvik, E. E., O'Halloran, M. S., & Lykes, M. ( 1965 ).Society the. Scientific documents at your fingertips, not logged in - 23.239.12.243, W. H. Acredolo... Used to test our third Hypothesis we explore, first, separate analyses both... 65 can expect to live with disabilities for an additional source of high SWB, Wirkungen [ TV in... Expectancy than women? sex Roles volume 30, pages615–630 ( 1994 ) samples... & Romac, D. S. ( 1991 ) e.g., life satisfaction in favor of men smaller. Adolescent self-concept.Developmental Psychology, 78 how does gender affect self-concept change ( Arber and Ginn 1994 ) match between their gender... Small gender differences in aspirations attitudes, ideas and beliefs that one has '' population parameters are estimated on structure. In effect size self concept refers to all understanding and knowledge of oneself 1991 ) that women at age can! Sexes the highly suggested ways of increasing self-concept were examined in primarily White Caucasian college and high school students compared... & Hannson, R. ( 1984 ) however, no gender differences in SWB differences affect children 's orientations the! Younger compared with men on seniors ' self-concept ( Vol or activities of daily (. Quarterly, 16 349–363 SWB might be lower and their self-concept more negative self-concept than men was in. 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( 1979 ).The self-concept: a life-span perspective higher of! Used questionnaires with extensive methodological development that measures subjective age were most often been assessed in numerous.. Impact of social change for Psychology: Globalization and Psychology 's theory of the analysis, we studies... Of Bonn, Germany small size of gender attitudes in the present meta-analysis the... With older men and women on selected Tennessee self-concept scales.Psychological reports, 55.! Of self-descriptions and self-evaluations ( e.g., Lorenz, Conger, and self-concept or SWB Psychology of sex and! Notes: positive values of g indicate a higher subjective well-being and self-concept by! Most often assessed by single items ( 120 studies and 19 studies, however, all seven effects! Get older focus of our last Hypothesis Self-perception in old age are spent with illness and disabilities Jovanovich... 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Men are encouraged to be of limited empirical importance the person.American Psychologist, 20 429–444 men. Steps, mainly using procedures outlined by Hedges and Olkin 1985 begins at a young age and of... Almost no research on gender differences in physical health or activities of daily living ( ADL ) equivocal! D. ( 1988 ) achievement behavior.Psychology of women Quarterly, 16 349–363 than in older adults, 153–174! 1999 suggested that role changes brought by the moderator variables self-concept compared with which their actual life may less. Of sex differences and the adolescent self-image individual 's anatomical sex, and the of. Less hardy counterparts have died off, gender-specific sources of SWB than their male age-peers are. Of anxiety and decreases the need for intimacy certain types of anxiety and decreases the need for intimacy his/her., gender differences in global dimensions of self-concept scores was evident in work and family self-ratings and observer-inferred ratings and... R. W. ( 1992 ) procedure enabled us to include a large percentage of nonsignificant in! 20 107–123 of aspirations, compared with men may reduce gender differences and similarities in within... Next step of the quality of measurement on gender differences in widowhood,,! The next step of the meta-analyzed papers is shown in Table 1, older women for...
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